NOT DEFTERİ, BİLGİ PAYLAŞIMI TIRI VIRI…

for i in (j*j for j in range(1,100)):
     print i, id(i)

1 21955224
4 21955152
9 21955032
16 21954864
25 21954648
...

Python’da iç içe looplardan çıkmak

      # Break out of a nested for loop when 'emma' is reached
      # Python does not have a goto statement to do this!

      print
      # or raise an exception ...
      try:
        for list2 in list1:
          for item in list2:
            print item
           if item == 'emma':
             # raise an exception
             raise StopIteration()
      except StopIteration:
        pass
       

      # or use a function and force a return ...


      def break_nestedloop(list1):
        for list2 in list1:
          for item in list2:
            print item
              if item == 'emma':
              # force a return
              return
       
       dummy = break_nestedloop(list1) # returns None

from sets import Set
students = Set(['Joe', 'Jane', 'Mary', 'Pete'])
programmers = Set(['Caroline', 'Tom', 'John', 'Pete'])
designers = Set(['Paul', 'Mary', 'Susan', 'Pete'])

print "These are the students:"
for student in students:
   print student,
print "!"

print "There are", len(students), "students."
print

people = students | programmers | designers           # union
print "All people:", people
print

student_designers = students & designers              # intersection
print "Students who also design:", student_designers
print

non_design_students = students - designers            # difference
print "Students who do not design:", non_design_students

Küme İşlemleri

Küme Kopyalamak ve Karşılaştırmak

Kümeyi kopyalamak için copy() kullanılmalıdır.

from sets import Set
odd = Set([1,3,5])
even = Set([2,4,6])
copy1 = odd
copy2 = odd.copy()

>>> print "Are copy1 and odd the same?", copy1 is odd
Are copy1 and odd the same? True
>>> print "Are copy1 and odd equal?", copy1 == odd
Are copy1 and odd equal? True
>>> print "Are copy2 and odd the same?", copy2 is odd
Are copy2 and odd the same? False
>>> print "Are copy2 and odd equal?",copy2 == odd
Are copy2 and odd equal? True


odd.add(7)
>>> print odd
Set([1, 3, 5, 7])
>>> print "copy1:", copy1
copy1: Set([1, 3, 5, 7])
>>> print "copy2:", copy2
copy2: Set([1, 3, 5])

Floating point karşılaştırması kesin midir?

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
        float f=0.0f;
        int i;

        for(i=0;i<10;i++)
                f = f + 0.1f;

        if(f == 1.0f)
                printf("f is 1.0 \n");
        else
                printf("f is NOT 1.0\n");

        return 0;
}

Böyle bir karşılaştırma yerine şöle bir karşılaştırma kullanalım…

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
        float f=0.0f;
        int i;

        for(i=0;i<10;i++)
                f = f + 0.1f;

        if ((f-1.0f)<0.00000000001f)
                printf("f is 1.0 \n");
        else
                printf("f is NOT 1.0\n");

        return 0;
}

Bak şu sleep’in yaptığına!

Sizce aşağıdaki program ne döner???

 #include <stdio.h>
  #include <unistd.h>
  int main()
  {
          while(1)
          {
                  fprintf(stdout,"hello-out");
                  fprintf(stderr,"hello-err");
                  sleep(1);
          }
          return 0;
  }

Bu python scripti Project Euler ile uğraştığım zaman kullandığım bazı fonksiyonlar içermektedir.

Dosyayı yüklemek için tıklayınız
İçeriği:

"""
 primes.py  -- Oregon Curriculum Network (OCN)
 Feb  1, 2001  changed global var primes to _primes, added relative primes test
 Dec 17, 2000  appended probable prime generating methods, plus invmod
 Dec 16, 2000  revised to use pow(), removed methods not in text, added sieve()
 Dec 12, 2000  small improvements to erastosthenes()
 Dec 10, 2000  added Euler test
 Oct  3, 2000  modified fermat test
 Jun  5, 2000  rewrite of erastosthenes method
 May 19, 2000  added more documentation
 May 18, 2000  substituted Euclid's algorithm for gcd
 Apr  7, 2000  changed name of union function to 'cover' for consistency
 Apr  6, 2000  added union, intersection -- changed code of lcm, gcd
 Apr  5, 2000  added euler, base, expo functions (renamed old euler to phi)
 Mar 31, 2000  added sieve, renaming/modifying divtrial
 Mar 30, 2000  added LCM, GCD, euler, fermat
 Mar 28, 2000  added lcm
 Feb 18, 2000  improved efficiency of isprime(), made getfactors recursive
"""
import time, random, operator

_primes = [2]    # global list of primes

def iseven(n):
   """Return true if n is even."""
   return n%2==0

def isodd(n):
   """Return true if n is odd."""
   return not iseven(n)

def get2max(maxnb):
   """Return list of primes up to maxnb."""

   nbprimes = 0
   if maxnb < 2: return []

   # start with highest prime so far

   i = _primes[-1]
   # and add...

   i = i + 1 + isodd(i)*1 # next odd number

   if i <= maxnb:  # if more prime checking needed...

      while i<=maxnb:
         if divtrial(i): _primes.append(i) # append to list if verdict true

         i=i+2     # next odd number

      nbprimes = len(_primes)
   else:
      for i in _primes: # return primes =< maxnb, even if more on file

         if i<=maxnb: nbprimes = nbprimes + 1
         else: break   # quit testing once maxnb exceeded

   return _primes[:nbprimes]

def get2nb(nbprimes):
   """Return list of primes with nbprimes members."""

   if nbprimes>len(_primes):
      # start with highest prime so far

      i = _primes[-1]
      # and add...

      i = i + 1 + isodd(i)*1

      while len(_primes)<nbprimes:
         if divtrial(i): _primes.append(i)
         i=i+2

   return _primes[:nbprimes]

def isprime(n):
   """
   Divide by primes until n proves composite or prime.

   Brute force algorithm, will wimp out for humongous n
   return 0 if n is divisible
   return 1 if n is prime"""

   nbprimes = 0
   rtnval = 1

   if n == 2: return 1
   if n < 2 or iseven(n): return 0

   maxnb = n ** 0.5 # 2nd root of n

   # if n < largest prime on file, check for n in list

   if n <= _primes[-1]: rtnval = (n in _primes)

   # if primes up to root(n) on file, run divtrial (a prime test)

   elif maxnb <= _primes[-1]: rtnval = divtrial(n)

   else:
      rtnval = divtrial(n)   # check divisibility by primes so far

      if rtnval==1:       # now, if still tentatively prime...

         # start with highest prime so far

         i = _primes[-1]
         # and add...

         i = i + 1 + isodd(i)*1     # next odd number

         while i <= maxnb:
            if divtrial(i):         # test of primehood

                _primes.append(i)    # append to list if prime

                if not n%i:         # if n divisible by latest prime

                   rtnval = 0       # then we're done

                   break
            i=i+2                   # next odd number

   return rtnval

def iscomposite(n):
   """
   Return true if n is composite.
   Uses isprime"""
   return not isprime(n)

def divtrial(n):
   """
   Trial by division check whether a number is prime."""
   verdict = 1      # default is "yes, add to list"

   cutoff  = n**0.5 # 2nd root of n

   for i in _primes:
        if not n%i:      # if no remainder

           verdict = 0   # then we _don't_ want to add

           break
        if i >= cutoff:  # stop trying to divide by

           break         # lower primes when p**2 > n

   return verdict

def erastosthenes(n):
   """
   Suggestions from Ka-Ping Yee, John Posner and Tim Peters"""
   sieve = [0, 0, 1] + [1, 0] * (n/2) # [0 0 1 1 0 1 0...]

   prime = 3                          # initial odd prime

   while prime**2 <= n:
       for i in range(prime**2, n+1, prime*2):
            sieve[i] = 0      # step through sieve by prime*2

       prime += 1 + sieve[prime+1:].index(1) # get next prime

   # filter includes corresponding integers where sieve = 1

   return filter(lambda i, sieve=sieve: sieve[i], range(n+1))

def sieve(n):
   """
   In-place sieving of odd numbers, adapted from code
   by Mike Fletcher
   """
   candidates = range(3, n+1, 2)  # start with odds

   for p in candidates:
       if p:                   # skip zeros

	   if p*p>n: break     # done

	   for q in xrange(p*p, n+1, 2*p):  # sieving

		candidates[(q-3)/2] = 0
   return [2] + filter(None, candidates)  # [2] + remaining nonzeros

def base(n,b):
   """
   Accepts n in base 10, returns list corresponding to n base b."""
   output = []
   while n>=1:
      n,r = divmod(n,b) # returns quotient, remainder

      output.append(r)
   output.reverse()
   return output

def fermat(n,b=2):
   """Test for primality based on Fermat's Little Theorem.

   returns 0 (condition false) if n is composite, -1 if
   base is not relatively prime
   """
   if gcd(n,b)>1: return -1
   else:          return pow(b,n-1,n)==1

def jacobi(a,n):
  """Return jacobi number.

  source: http://www.utm.edu/research/primes/glossary/JacobiSymbol.html"""
  j = 1
  while not a == 0:
    while iseven(a):
      a = a/2
      if (n%8 == 3 or n%8 == 5): j = -j

    x=a; a=n; n=x  # exchange places

    if (a%4 == 3 and n%4 == 3): j = -j
    a = a%n

  if n == 1: return j
  else: return 0

def euler(n,b=2):
   """Euler probable prime if (b**(n-1)/2)%n = jacobi(a,n).

   (stronger than simple fermat test)"""
   term = pow(b,(n-1)/2.0,n)
   jac  = jacobi(b,n)
   if jac == -1: return term == n-1
   else: return  term == jac

def getfactors(n):
   """Return list containing prime factors of a number."""
   if isprime(n) or n==1: return [n]
   else:
       for i in _primes:
           if not n%i: # if goes evenly

               n = n/i
               return [i] + getfactors(n)

def gcd(a,b):
   """Return greatest common divisor using Euclid's Algorithm."""
   while b:
	a, b = b, a % b
   return a

def lcm(a,b):
   """
   Return lowest common multiple."""
   return (a*b)/gcd(a,b)

def GCD(terms):
   "Return gcd of a list of numbers."
   return reduce(lambda a,b: gcd(a,b), terms)

def LCM(terms):
   "Return lcm of a list of numbers."
   return reduce(lambda a,b: lcm(a,b), terms)

def phi(n):
   """Return number of integers < n relatively prime to n."""
   product = n
   used = []
   for i in getfactors(n):
      if i not in used:    # use only unique prime factors

         used.append(i)
         product = product * (1 - 1.0/i)
   return int(product)

def relprimes(n,b=1):
   """
   List the remainders after dividing n by each
   n-relative prime * some relative prime b
   """
   relprimes = []
   for i in range(1,n):
      if gcd(i,n)==1:  relprimes.append(i)
   print "          n-rp's: %s" % (relprimes)
   relprimes = map(operator.mul,[b]*len(relprimes),relprimes)
   newremainders = map(operator.mod,relprimes,[n]*len(relprimes))
   print "b * n-rp's mod n: %s" % newremainders

def testeuler(a,n):
   """Test Euler's Theorem"""
   a = long(a)
   if gcd(a,n)>1:
      print "(a,n) not relative primes"
   else:
      print "Result: %s" % pow(a,phi(n),n)

def goldbach(n):
   """Return pair of primes such that p1 + p2 = n."""
   rtnval = []

   _primes = get2max(n)

   if isodd(n) and n >= 5:
      rtnval = [3] # 3 is a term

      n = n-3      # 3 + goldbach(lower even)

      if n==2: rtnval.append(2) # catch 5

   else:
      if n<=3: rtnval = [0,0] # quit if n too small

   for i in range(len(_primes)):
      # quit if we've found the answer

      if len(rtnval) >= 2: break
      # work back from highest prime < n

      testprime = _primes[-(i+1)]
      for j in _primes:
         # j works from start of list

         if j + testprime == n:
              rtnval.append(j)
              rtnval.append(testprime) # answer!

              break
         if j + testprime > n:
              break  # ready for next testprime

   return rtnval

"""
The functions below have to do with encryption, and RSA in
particular, which uses large probable _primes.  More discussion
at the Oregon Curriculum Network website is at
http://www.inetarena.com/~pdx4d/ocn/clubhouse.html
"""

def bighex(n):
    hexdigits = list('0123456789ABCDEF')
    hexstring = random.choice(hexdigits[1:])
    for i in range(n):
        hexstring += random.choice(hexdigits)
    return eval('0x'+hexstring+'L')

def bigdec(n):
    decdigits = list('0123456789')
    decstring = random.choice(decdigits[1:])
    for i in range(n):
        decstring += random.choice(decdigits)
    return long(decstring)

def bigppr(digits=100):
    """
    Randomly generate a probable prime with a given
    number of decimal digits
    """
    start = time.clock()
    print "Working..."
    candidate = bigdec(digits) # or use bighex

    if candidate&1==0:
        candidate += 1
    prob = 0
    while 1:
        prob=pptest(candidate)
        if prob>0: break
        else: candidate += 2
    print "Percent chance of being prime: %r" % (prob*100)
    print "Elapsed time: %s seconds" % (time.clock()-start)
    return candidate

def pptest(n):
    """
    Simple implementation of Miller-Rabin test for
    determining probable primehood.
    """
    bases  = [random.randrange(2,50000) for x in range(90)]

    # if any of the primes is a factor, we're done

    if n<=1: return 0

    for b in bases:
        if n%b==0: return 0

    tests,s  = 0L,0
    m        = n-1

    # turning (n-1) into (2**s) * m

    while not m&1:  # while m is even

        m >>= 1
        s += 1
    for b in bases:
        tests += 1
        isprob = algP(m,s,b,n)
        if not isprob: break

    if isprob: return (1-(1./(4**tests)))
    else:      return 0

def algP(m,s,b,n):
    """
    based on Algorithm P in Donald Knuth's 'Art of
    Computer Programming' v.2 pg. 395
    """
    result = 0
    y = pow(b,m,n)
    for j in range(s):
       if (y==1 and j==0) or (y==n-1):
          result = 1
          break
       y = pow(y,2,n)
    return result

def invmod(a,b):
    """
    Return modular inverse using a version Euclid's Algorithm
    Code by Andrew Kuchling in Python Journal:
    http://www.pythonjournal.com/volume1/issue1/art-algorithms/
    -- in turn also based on Knuth, vol 2.
    """
    a1, a2, a3 = 1L,0L,a
    b1, b2, b3 = 0L,1L,b
    while b3 != 0:
        # The following division will drop decimals.

        q = a3 / b3
        t = a1 - b1*q, a2 - b2*q, a3 - b3*q
        a1, a2, a3 = b1, b2, b3
        b1, b2, b3 = t
    while a2<0: a2 = a2 + a
    return a2

# code highlighted using py2html.py version 0.8

(loop for x from 1 to 3
      do (loop for y from 11 to 12
      do (print (+ x y)) ))


(defun factors (num)
"This function will find the factors of the argument num."
(let ((l '()))
(do ((current 1 (1+ current)))
((> current (/ num current)))
(if (= 0 (mod num current))
(if (= current (/ num current))
(setf l (append l (list current)))
(setf l (append l (list current (/ num current)))))))
(sort l #'< )))
 
(defun coprimesp (num1 num2)
"Returns t if numbers are coprimes, nil otherwise."
(let ((flag t))
(dolist (atom1 (rest (factors num1)))
(dolist (atom2 (rest (factors num2)))
(if (= atom1 atom2)
(setf flag nil))))
flag))
 
(defun find-primes (top)
"Finds primes starting at one and searching up to given number, top."
(let ((l '()))
(dotimes (x top)
(if (= 2 (length (factors x)))
(setf l (append l (list x)))))
l))
 
(defun prime-factors (num)
  (let ( (f (factor num)) (l '()) )
    (dolist (element f)
      (if (primep element)
	  (setf l (append l (list element)))
	  (setf l (append l (prime-factors element)))))
    l))
 
 
 
(defun prime-p (n)
(declare ((speed 3) (safety 0) (fixnum-safety 0))
(fixnum n))
(cond
((and (<= n 11) (member n '(2 3 5 7 11)) t)
((= (rem n 2) 0) nil)
((= (rem n 3) 0) nil)
((= (rem n 5) 0) nil)
((= (rem n 7) 0) nil)
(t
(loop for i fixnum from 11 to (isqrt n) by 2
(when (= (rem n i) 0) (return-from prime-p nil))
t)))
 
 
(defun sieve5 (n)
  "Returns a list of all primes from 2 to n"
  (declare (fixnum n) (optimize (speed 3) (safety 0)))
  (let* ((a (make-array n :element-type 'bit :initial-element 0))
         (result (list 2))
         (root (isqrt n)))
    (declare (fixnum root))
    (do ((i 3 (the fixnum (+ i 2))))
        ((>= i n) (nreverse result))
      (declare (fixnum i))
      (progn (when (= (sbit a i) 0)
               (push i result)
               (if (<= i root)
                   (do* ((inc (+ i i))
                         (j (* i i) (the fixnum (+ j inc))))
                        ((>= j n))
                     (declare (fixnum j inc))
                     (setf (sbit a j) 1))))))))


(defun divides? (a b)
(= (mod b a) 0))
 
(defun find-divisor (n test-divisor)
(cond ((> (* test-divisor test-divisor) n) n)
      ((divides? test-divisor n) test-divisor)
      (t (find-divisor n (+ test-divisor 1))))))
 
(defun smallest-divisor (n)
(find-divisor n 2))
 
(defun prime? (n)
(= n (smallest-divisor n)))
 
=== Parametre olan Fonksiyon isimleri===
 
(defun sum (term a next b)
 (if (> a b)
     0
     (+ (funcall term a) (sum term (funcall next a) next b))))
 
(defun sum-int (a b)
(defun myidentity (a) a)
(sum #'myidentity a #'1+ b))
 
veya
 
(defun sum-int (a b)
(sum (lambda(x) x) a #'1+ b))
 
 
(defun sum-sqr (a b)
(defun square (a) (* a a))
(sum #'square a #'1+ b))
 
 
(defun mysqrt(x) (fixed-point (lambda(y) (average (/ x y) y)) 1))
 
(defun sum-of-digits(n)
(if (= (abs n) 0) 0 (+ (mod (abs n) 10) (sum-of-digits (/ (- (abs n)  (mod (abs n) 10)) 10)))))
 
(defun factorial(n) (if (= n 0) 1 (* n (factorial (- n 1)))))
 
(reduce '+ (find-primes 2000000))

#include stdio.h

int main()
{
    printf("goodbye, dad\n");
    return 0;
}

“UNIX is very simple, it just needs a genius to understand its simplicity.”
Dennis Ritchie

Rest in peace GREAT MAN!

Programı yazalım

$ vim factorial.c
# include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
	int i, num, j;
	printf ("Enter the number: ");
	scanf ("%d", &num );

	for (i=1; i<num; i++)
		j=j*i;

	printf("The factorial of %d is %d\n",num,j);
}

$ cc factorial.c

$ ./a.out
Enter the number: 3
The factorial of 3 is 12548672

gdb kullanabilmek için ”cc -g” ile compile edelim

$ cc -g factorial.c

Önce gdb yi a.out için çalıştırıyoruz.

$ gdb a.out

Sonra break point koyuyoruz

Syntax:

break line_number

    *
      break [file_name]:line_number
    *
      break [file_name]:func_name

break 10
Breakpoint 1 at 0x804846f: file factorial.c, line 10.

“run ” ile programı çalıştır

run [args]

run
Starting program: /home/sathiyamoorthy/Debugging/c/a.out

İlk break pointe kadar program çalışır eder

Breakpoint 1, main () at factorial.c:10
10			j=j*i;

Bu noktada debug edebiliriz
Değişken değerlerine bakalım

Syntax: print {variable}

Examples:
print i
print j
print num

(gdb) p i
$1 = 1
(gdb) p j
$2 = 3042592
(gdb) p num
$3 = 3
(gdb)

gdb ile kullanılabilecek diğer seçenekler
c (continue kısaltması): Bir sonraki break point e kadar sür.
n (next kısaltması): Birsonraki satırı sür
s (step kısaltması): n ile aynıdır fakat fonksiyon geldiğinde fonksiyonu tek satır olarak almaz fonksiyona gidip onu satır satır çalıştırır

Diğer seçeekler
l – list
p – print
c – continue
s – step
ENTER: bir önceki emri tekrar et
l command: Kaynak kodu görmek için kullanılır
bt: backtrack – Print backtrace of all stack frames, or innermost COUNT frames.
help – help TOPICNAME.
quit – çıkış

kaynak

Bunu başarmak için:

Öncelikle bc_yapilacakis isimli dosyayi olusturalim.
Dosyanın içeriği

d = a / b
print a," divided by ",b," with scale ",scale," is ",d
quit

Şimdi bc_userparametre.sh isimli shell dosyasını oluşturalım.
Dosyanın içeriği

# This is a shell script to request two numbers
# and pass those numbers to the bc interpreter
# for doing a calculation
echo -n "Enter numerator (top number) "
read var1
echo -n "Enter denominator (bottom number) "
read var2
echo -n "Enter scope (number of decimal places) "
read var3
cat <<eee > bc_parametreler
    a = $var1
    b = $var2
    scale = $var3
eee
bc -q bc_parametreler bc_yapilacakis
rm -f bc_parametreler
echo ""

Görüldüğü gibi bc_userparametre.sh dosyasi bc_parametreler isimli dosyayi oluşturuyor.
bc ise quite modda önce bc_parametreler sonra bc_yapilacakis dosyasını okuyarak işini tamamlıyor.